Essay X 
 
Of Man, As the Arbiter of his Own Fortune 
 
     Natural and moral ills are essential to our system. It is in 
vain to enquire into their origin. An exemption from the former, 
would imply physical independence; an exemption from the latter, 
all moral perfection. Such attributes are divine. Yet man is 
neither chained down by necessity, nor impelled by fate. And 
resignation to the unalterable order of things, a sentiment so 
becoming his condition, ought not to arrest the hand of industry, 
or to contract the sphere of active enterprize. After all the 
efforts he can boast, after exhausting the accumulated exertions of 
ages, there remains, and will remain, abundant scope for all the 
passive virtues in the life of man. Let him then sustain with 
dignity the weight of his condition; yet not meanly acquiesce in 
grievances within his province to redress. 
     The actions of the elements on his frame is not more 
conspicuous, than his reciprocal action on those very elements 
which are permitted to annoy his being. He has a range allowed him 
in the creation peculiar to himself alone; and he seems to have had 
delegated to him a certain portion of the government of the natural 
world. Revolutions, indeed, are brought about in various regions by 
the universal laws of motion, uncontrouled, and uncontroulable by 
any human power. But, under certain limitations, soil and climate 
are subject to his dominion; and the natural history of the 
terraqueous globe varies with the civil history of nations. 
     In the descriptions of antient and modern Europe, the same 
countries appear to be essentially different. The climates beyond 
the Atlantic, are altered since the days of Columbus. But such 
differences and alterations are more rightly imputed to the conduct 
and operations of men, than to any mutability in the course of 
nature. Nor are such alterations confined to those settlements on 
which the additional culture has been bestowed. The arts of tillage 
and agriculture have a more diffusive and general effect. The 
country of Italy, though not better cultivated than in the days of 
the Romans, has undergone since those days a vicissitude of 
temperature, which has arisen, in all probability, from the more 
improved state of German and France. 
     The temperature of climates throughout America, so different 
from that which predominates under the same parallels of latitude 
in the antient world, is not entirely to be ascribed to fixed and 
permanent causes, but rather to the more recent existence of 
nations in the new hemisphere, and the inferior cultivation it has 
consequently received from the hand of man. Thus much is certain: 
by opening the soil, by clearing the forests, by cutting out 
passages for the stagnant waters, the new hemisphere becomes 
auspicious, like the old, for the growth and population of mankind. 
     Let us learn then to wage war with the elements, not with our 
own kind; to recover, if one may say so, our patrimony from chaos, 
and not to add to his empire. 
     The history of the colonies, and commercial establishments of 
the European nations, testifies that, in almost every corner, a 
healthful and salubrious climate is the sure effect of persevering 
and well-conducted labour. Nor is the opposite effect changeably 
merely on the neglect of culture, and the atmosphere that overhangs 
the desert alone malignant. The malignancy is often directly 
chargeable on manners, on police, and on civil establishments. In 
some of the most malignant climates on the Guinea coast, the impure 
habits of the natives have been assigned as the efficient cause. 
The exhalations of a negro village, negroes only can endure. 
     þThe plague, says Dr Chandler in his Travels into the East, 
might be wholly averted from these countries, or at least prevented 
from spreading, if lazarettos were erected, and salutary 
regulations enforced, as in some cities of Europe. Smyrna would be 
affected as little perhaps as Marseilles, if the police were as 
well modelled. But this is the wisdom of a sensible and enlightened 
people.þ 
     A species of necessity, however, in some countries, conducts 
mankind to certain decorums in life and manners, which wait, in 
other countries, the ages of taste and refinement. The Dutch 
certainly are not the most polite among the European nations; yet 
the nature of their civil settlement, as if anticipating the 
dictates of refinement, introduced among them, from the beginning, 
a degree of order in their police, and of cleanliness in their 
household oeconomy, not surpassed, perhaps unequalled, by any other 
people. On a principle of health, an attention to cleanliness is 
more or less incumbent on all communities. It presents an emblem of 
inward purity, and is dignified, perhaps not improperly, in some 
systems of ethics, with the appellation of a moral virtue. But with 
all imaginable precaution of this score, the confluence of numbers 
in a crowded scene is generally productive of disease. Hence 
pestilential distempers are so often bred in the camp, and usually 
march in the train of war. And hence the establishment of great 
cities, under the best regulated police, can be demonstrated, from 
the bills of mortality, to be destructive in a high degree of 
population and public health. [See Dr Priceþs Observations on 
Reversionary Payments] But all these examples relate to artificial, 
not to natural, climate; and there seems to be little ground, in 
the history of the terraqueous globe, to associate with any fixed 
and immutable constitution of the atmosphere, the happiness or 
perfections of the human species.[A] 
     Yet local prejudices every where abound: the most accomplished 
citizens, in nations and ages the most accomplished, have not been 
exempted from their sway. Plato returned thanks to the immortal 
Gods, that he was an Athenian, not a Theban, born; that he breathed 
on the southern, not on the northern side of the Asopus. But if 
Athens was eminent for refinement, there were other causes than the 
climate. And if the Boeotians were dull to a proverb, it was a 
temporary calamity, and Pindar, and Pelopidas, and Epaminondas 
shall vindicate that soil. Thus much we may with certainly affirm, 
that soil and climate, if not altogether foreign to the mind, are, 
like the mind, susceptible of improvement, and variable, in a high 
degree, with the progress of civil arts. Settlements abandoned by 
one colony, have been repeopled with success by another. Projects, 
thought desperate in days of ignorance, have been resumed and 
conducted to a prosperous issue in more enlightened times. 
Individuals have often failed in their attempts for want of public 
encouragement. Public enterprizes have failed for want of 
concurrence among nations. Establish then concert and union among 
mankind; all regions become habitable, and the elements almost 
cease to rebel. 
     Nor is this command over the elements the only effect of 
progressive industry and labour. The changes introduced into 
clothing, subsistence, modes of life, present considerations of 
equal moment. In consequence of these changes, our animal situation 
is as fluctuating as our moral; and the same people, in the ages of 
rudeness and civility, will retain fewer marks of resemblance in 
their organical structure, than will be found among the most 
distant nations when contemplated in corresponding points of their 
progress. A people emerged above the wilder states, who subsist by 
the culture of the soil, not by its spontaneous provision; who 
farther superadd the use of foreign commodities to the domestic 
articles of consumption, have undergone transitions, gradual 
perhaps and insensible, but which have affected their whole animal 
oeconomy. Thus the commercial arts, by concentring in one corner of 
the world the divided treasures of the earth, confound the primeval 
distribution and arrangement of things, and diversify, in the same 
climate, the condition of tribes and nations. There seems to be a 
certain regimen of life suited to the local circumstances of 
mankind, which is suggested to them at first by instinct, or is the 
slow result of experience. A different regimen, recommended in a 
similar manner, is best adapted to their circumstances in another 
region; and sudden or injudicious alterations in the modes of life, 
are among the fatal consequences that attend the commerce of 
nations. The transference too of epidemical distemper from region 
to region is another consequence of that commerce no less 
destructive. Distempers, local in their origin, being thus diffused 
over the globe, become, when transplanted, more formidable than in 
their native seats. The plague, so desolating when it invades 
Europe, commits not equal havoc in the East. The malady imported by 
Columbus, was less virulent in the American climates. On the other 
hand, the small-pox, introduced into those climates by the 
Europeans, threatened the depopulation of the new hemisphere. 
     Time, however, which corrects the tendency of migrations, 
seems also to correct the virulence of transplanted distemper. 
Either the human constitution opposes it with new vigour, or the 
art of medicine combats it with more success; or the poison, by 
being long blended with surrounding elements, ceases to be so 
destructive. It may also be observed, that some disorders leave 
impressions in the constitution which prevent, in future, the 
possibility of similar annoyance. Hence the expediency of 
inoculation, a practice first introduced into Europe from the East, 
which solicits disease through a safer channel, as a preservative 
against its eventual attack in all the circumstances of its natural 
malignity. But to return from this digression, let us survey the 
farther tendency of the commercial arts. 
     The natural productions of one corner, supply the demands of 
luxury in another; and the most distant tribes may approximate each 
other in their animal temperament by mutual traffic. Even the 
natives of the most penurious soil may exchange the rude simplicity 
of their ancestors for the extravagance of the most pampered 
nations. As national affluence, however, is not distributed equally 
among the several members of the community (for under an equal 
division of property no government can long subsist), we often 
observe at once, in the distinction of ranks, such effects of 
various temperament as arise in succession to the public from the 
general vicissitudes of society. Penury and wealth, simplicity and 
prodigality, indolence and toil, create constitutional distinctions 
among the different orders of citizens. For the impression of the 
commercial arts is often conspicuous in the upper departments of 
life, before it reaches those of inferior condition; but the circle 
gradually widens. The exclusive possession of opulence cannot be 
long maintained; and the fluctuation, so natural to commercial 
states, must disseminate the effects over the public at large. 
     In the last period of the Roman government, the different 
provinces of the empire became contaminated with the luxury of the 
East, whose influence on the bodily temperament may have 
contributed, along with moral and political distemper, to the 
success of the northern armies. 
 
               --------- Saevior armis 
               Luxuria incubuit, victumque ulciscitur orbem. 
 
     But these symptoms of decay, which spread at last over the 
provinces, and tainted the mass of the people, had originated among 
the nobles, and in the seat of government. It was the legions, not 
the senate, the provincials, not the Romans, who acted, during the 
several generations, as the masters of mankind. Aurelian, and 
Probus, and Dioclesian, the restorers of the Roman world, were not 
of Roman blood. And Rome, more debauched than the distant 
provinces, had been some of them, ages before here fall, erected 
into distinct and independent states, no longer acknowledging here 
sovereign authority, or the laws of the empire. 
     Such consequences, however, imply no imputation on the arts of 
civil life. The food, the raiment, the occupations of the polished 
citizen may be as innocent as those of the savage. The latter is 
even guilty of excesses which disappear in the age of refinement. 
The immoderate use of intoxicating liquors is generally most 
predominant in the ruder forms of society. It is relinquished in 
the progress of refinement, and seems to be scarce compatible with 
the elegant luxuries of a highly cultivated people. 
     A propensity indeed to vicious excess, may be accidentally 
combined in the same character with a high relish for the luxuries 
of life. But the passions themselves are totally distinct. A 
proneness to luxury, with an aversion to all riot or excess, is no 
uncommon character; and a proneness to excess, with an aversion to 
luxury, though more rare, is by no means without example. 
     A striking example occurs in the character of the famous Irish 
rebel, who, in the reign of Elizabeth, assumed the rank and 
appellation of King of Ulster. þHe was a man, says the historian, 
equally noted for his pride, his violence, his debaucheries, and 
his hatred of the English nation. He is said to have put some of 
his followers to death, because they endeavoured to introduce the 
use of bread after the English fashion. Though so violent an enemy 
to luxury, he was extremely addicted to riot, and was accustomed, 
after his intemperance had thrown him into a fever, to plunge his 
body into mire, that he might allay the flame which he had raised 
by former excesses.þ[History of England, vol. v. p. 399.] 
 
     Luxury, according to its species and direction, may be 
pronounced to be either salutary or destructive. By its connexion 
with industry and active exertion, it is productive of the noblest 
effects. It is the parent of ingenious arts, and conducts a people 
to honour and distinction. Yet objects which are not only innocent, 
but beneficial in the pursuit, may prove dangerous in the 
possession; and the acquisitions of natural virtue may become the 
occasion of its fall. Habits there surely are, incident to 
different periods of society, which tend to enervate the body, and 
to vitiate the blood. The mechanical springs of life rest not on 
the energy of one cause, but on the combination of many, possessing 
often opposite and qualifying powers. It were improper, therefore, 
to expatiate on the tendency of one principle, without attending to 
others which serve to heighten or to mitigate its force. One writer 
magnifies the power of climate; another, the effects of aliment; a 
third, the efficacy of labour or rest, and the peculiar influence 
of certain modes of life. But these circumstances are relative to 
each other, and it is the result of the combination with which we  
are alone concerned. It was well answered by the Spartan to the 
King of Syracuse, who found fault with the coarseness of the 
Spartan fare. þIn order, says he, to make these victuals relish, it 
is necessary to bathe in the Eurotas.þ 
     By the progress of agriculture and rural oeconomy in our 
climates, that mode of subsistence has become the most easy, which 
was formerly the most difficult. And it were well, perhaps, for 
mankind, in most countries of Europe at this day, if the great and 
opulent exchanged with those of inferior condition many of the 
daily articles of consumption. Vegetable aliment seems to be better 
adapted to the more indolent class of citizens. The labouring part 
of society require a larger proportion of animal food. But it is 
often difficult for the meaner sort to procure for themselves 
suitable subsistence, and more difficult for the superiors to 
abstain from improper gratifications. 
     If I were not Alexander, said the Prince of Macedon, I would 
chuse to be Diogenes. Yet the generality of people would rather 
imitate the conduct of Aristippus, who, for the pageantry of a 
court, and the pleasures of a luxurious table, could forego 
independence, and descent from the dignity of philosophy to the 
adulation of Kings.[B] The conduct however of mankind, in 
uncorrupted times, was more conformable to nature; and their reason 
taught them to form such habits and combinations as were most 
congruous with their external condition. Different systems of 
policy grow out of these combinations; and usages and laws relative 
to climate make a capital figure in antient legislation. Even 
superstition, on some occasions, has proved a guardian of public 
manners, and a useful auxiliary to legislative power. Abstinence 
from the flesh of animals, abstinence from wine, frequent 
purifications, and other external observances among the Indians, 
the Persians, the Arabians, how absurd soever if transferred to 
other countries, formed on the occasions, and in the countries 
where they were instituted, important branches of political 
oeconomy. The Egyptians prescribed by a law a regimen for their 
Kings. In some instances, certain rules of proportion were 
established; and suitable to the different classes of citizens, 
there was a special allotment of aliment prescribed by the religion 
of Brama. The Christian dispensation alone, divine in its origin, 
and designed to be universal, descends not to local institutions; 
but, leaving the details of policy to the rulers of nations, 
inculcates only those pure and essential doctrines which are 
adapted to all climates and governments. Yet the Vedam, the 
Shaster, the Koran, and other antient codes, which afford, in one 
view, so striking examples of credulity and fanaticism, may be 
regarded, in another, as monuments of human sagacity. Happy had it 
been for the world, if the founders of religion and government has 
separated, in such cases, the pure gold from the dross, and 
connived only at illusions connected with public felicity. It were 
often happy for rude tribes, if they were taught a local 
superstition, how absurd soever in its details, that tended to 
preserve the simplicity of their morals, and debarred them in many 
instances from adopting foreign customs and manners. How fortunate 
would it have been for the Indian tribes, throughout the continent 
of North America, if they had been debarred, by the solemn 
sanctions of a religion as absurd as that of Mahomet, from the use 
of intoxicating liquors! a practice derived to them from European 
commerce, and which contributes, in the new hemisphere, more, 
perhaps, than any other cause, to the destruction, and what is 
worse, to the debasement of the species. 
     Our voyages of discovery, which, in some respects, are so 
honourable, and calculated for noble ends, have never yet been 
happy for any of the tribes of mankind visited by us. The vices of 
Europe have already contaminated the Otaheitean blood. Whether the 
English or French navigators have been the first authors of the 
dreadful calamity which now afflicts that race, it is of little 
importance to decide. While so odious a charge is retorted on each 
other by those nations, the natives of the happy island, so cruelly 
abused, will have cause to lament for ages, that any European 
vessel ever touched their shores. 
 
               Felix, heu nimium felix! si littora tantum--- 
 
     The introduction of certain vegetables and animals, however 
useful to human life, make a poor recompence to the natives for the 
communication of disease, and the corruption of manners. 
     Moral depravity is a fertile source of physical ills to 
individuals, to families, and to nations. Nor are the ills inherent 
only in the race which bred the disorder. They spread from race to 
race, and are often entailed, in all their malignity, on posterity. 
Thus hereditary distemper has a foundation in the natural, as in 
the moral world. Nor does this reflect upon eternal justice, or 
breed confusion in the universe, or derogate from the sum of its 
perfections. If we are punished for the vices, we are rewarded too 
for the virtues, of our fathers. These opposite principles of 
exaltation and debasement tend to the equilibrium of the system. 
They serve also to a farther end; they serve to draw closer the 
ties of humanity, to remind us of our duty, by reminding us of the 
relations of our being; and of those indissoluble connexions and 
dependencies which unite us with the past, and will unite us with 
all succeeding ages. 
 
NOTES. 
 
NOTE [A] 
 
     Of the efficacy of sound regimen in preserving health, under 
all the variety of climate to which mankind are apt to be exposed, 
there occurs a memorable example in the late voyage round the world 
by Capt. Cook, so justly represented to the Royal Society, by his 
elegant and learned encomiast. That navigator, whose melancholy 
fate is, at the moment I am writing, lamented by all Europe, þwith 
a company of 118 men, performed a voyage of three years and 
eighteen days, throughout all the climates from 52 degrees north to 
71 degrees south latitude, with the loss of a single man only by 
disease:þ a proportion so moderate, that the bills of mortality, in 
no climate or condition of society, can furnish such another 
example. 
     It is well observed, by the Abbe Fontana, that nature is not 
so partial as we commonly believe; that, though it is of importance 
to ascertain the qualities of the atmospherical air, and the 
changes it undergoes, yet the air in general is good in all 
countries; and that the small differences, which in reality 
subsist, are by no means so formidable as some people are apt to 
suppose. These conclusion, founded on a series of well-digested 
observations, are communicated in a Letter to Dr Priestley, whose 
own experiments on this subject are equally splendid in science, 
and of importance to human life. 
                    See Phil. Trans. for 1779. 
 
NOTE [B] 
 
     Horace, indeed, in the spirit of the courtier, the poet, and 
the man of pleasure, approves the temporizing system of Aristippus, 
rather than the austere rigour of Diogenes. The pedantry of the 
latter was surely excessive. But is was the excess of that free, 
manly, and independent spirit, which is allied to true glory, and 
formed the heroism of antiquity. 
 
          Si pranderet olus patienter, regibus uti 
          Nollet Artistippus; 
 
was the judgment of the cynic; and the reply of Aristippus is 
rather smart than solid: 
 
          --- Si sciret regibus uti, 
          Fastidiret olus, que me notat. ---- 
                              Hor. l. i. ep. 17.